mathematical physics Epic Effort to Ground Physics in Math Opens Up the Secrets of Time By mathematically proving how individual molecules create the complex motion of fluids, three mathematicians have illuminated why time can’t flow in reverse. 10 A woman surfing on a wave formed by circular objects Wei-An Jin/Quanta Magazine ByLeila Sloman Contributing Correspondent June 11, 2025 View PDF/Print Mode fluid dynamicsmathematical physicsmathematicsNavier-Stokes equationspartial differential equationsAll topics At the turn of the 20th century, the renowned mathematician David Hilbert had a grand ambition to bring a more rigorous, mathematical way of thinking into the world of physics. At the time, physicists were still plagued by debates about basic definitions — what is heat? how are molecules structured? — and Hilbert hoped that the formal logic of mathematics could provide guidance. On the morning of August 8, 1900, he delivered a list of 23 key math problems to the International Congress of Mathematicians. Number six: Produce airtight proofs of the laws of physics. The scope of Hilbert’s sixth problem was enormous. He asked “to treat in the same manner [as geometry], by means of axioms, those physical sciences in which mathematics plays an important part.” His challenge to axiomatize physics was “really a program,” said Dave Levermore(opens a new tab), a mathematician at the University of Maryland. “The way the sixth problem is actually stated, it’s never going to be solved.” But Hilbert provided a starting point. To study different properties of a gas — say, the speed of its molecules, or its average temperature — physicists use different equations. In particular, they use one set of equations to describe how individual molecules in a gas move, and another to describe the behavior of the gas as a whole. Was it possible, Hilbert wondered, to show that one set of equations implied the other — that these equations were, as physicists had assumed but hadn’t rigorously proved, simply different ways of modeling the same reality? For 125 years, even axiomatizing this small corner of physics seemed impossible. Mathematicians made partial progress, coming up with proofs that only worked when they considered the behavior of gases on extremely short timescales or in other contrived situations. But these fell short of the kind of result that Hilbert had imagined. Share this article (opens a new tab) Newsletter Get Quanta Magazine delivered to your inbox Subscribe now Recent newsletters (opens a new tab) Black-and-white photo of a bald man sitting in a wicker chair. In 1900, David Hilbert came up with a list of 23 problems to guide the next century of mathematical research. His sixth problem challenged mathematicians to axiomatize physics. University of Gottingen Now, three mathematicians have finally provided such a result. Their work not only represents a major advance in Hilbert’s program, but also taps into questions about the irreversible nature of time. “It’s a beautiful work,” said Gregory Falkovich(opens a new tab), a physicist at the Weizmann Institute of Science. “A tour de force.” Under the Mesoscope Consider a gas whose particles are very spread out. There are many ways a physicist might model it. At a microscopic level, the gas is composed of individual molecules that act like billiard balls, moving through space according to Isaac Newton’s 350-year-old laws of motion. This model of the gas’s behavior is called the hard-sphere particle system. Now zoom out a bit. At this new “mesoscopic” scale, your field of vision encompasses too many molecules to individually track. Instead, you’ll model the gas using an equation that the physicists James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann developed in the late 19th century. Called the Boltzmann equation, it describes the likely behavior of the gas’s molecules, telling you how many particles you can expect to find at different locations moving at different speeds. This model of the gas lets physicists study how air moves at small scales — for instance, how it might flow around a space shuttle(opens a new tab). What mathematicians do to physicists is they wake us up. Gregory Falkovich Zoom out again, and you can no longer tell that the gas is made up of individual particles. It acts like one continuous substance. To model this macroscopic behavior — how dense the gas is and how fast it’s moving at any point in space — you’ll need yet another set of equations, called the Navier-Stokes equations. Physicists view these three different models of the gas’s behavior as compatible; they’re simply different lenses for understanding the same thing. But mathematicians hoping to contribute to Hilbert’s sixth problem wanted to prove that rigorously. They needed to show that Newton’s model of individual particles gives rise to Boltzmann’s statistical description, and that Boltzmann’s equation in turn gives rise to the Navier-Stokes equations. Mathematicians have had some success with the second step, proving that it’s possible to derive a macroscopic model of a gas from a mesoscopic one in various settings. But they couldn’t resolve the first step, leaving the chain of logic incomplete. Now that’s changed. In a series of papers, the mathematicians Yu Deng(opens a new tab), Zaher Hani(opens a new tab) and Xiao Ma(opens a new tab) proved the harder microscopic-to-mesoscopic step(opens a new tab) for a gas in one of these settings, completing the chain(opens a new tab) for the first time. The result and the techniques that made it possible are “paradigm-shifting,” said Yan Guo(opens a new tab) of Brown University. A man standing by a chalkboard Yu Deng usually studies the behavior of systems of waves. But by applying his expertise to the realm of particles, he has now resolved a major open problem in mathematical physics. Courtesy of Yu Deng Declaration of Independence Boltzmann could already show that Newton’s laws of motion give rise to his mesoscopic equation, so long as one crucial assumption holds true: that the particles in the gas move more or less independently of each other. That is, it must be very rare for a particular pair of molecules to collide with each other multiple times. But Boltzmann could not definitively demonstrate that this assumption was true. “What he could not do, of course, is prove theorems about this,” said Sergio Simonella(opens a new tab) of Sapienza University in Rome. “There was no structure, there were no tools at the time.” A bespectacled man in a suit The physicist Ludwig Boltzmann studied the statistical properties of fluids. Creative Commons After all, there are infinitely many ways a collection of particles might collide and recollide. “You just get this huge explosion of possible directions that they can go,” Levermore said — making it a “nightmare” to actually prove that scenarios involving many recollisions are as rare as Boltzmann needed them to be. In 1975, a mathematician named Oscar Lanford managed to prove this(opens a new tab), but only for extremely short time periods. (The exact amount of time depends on the initial state of the gas, but it’s less than the blink of an eye, according to Simonella.) Then the proof broke down; before most of the particles got the chance to collide even once, Lanford could no longer guarantee that recollisions would remain a rare occurrence. In the decades since, many mathematicians tried to extend his result, to no avail. Then, in November of 2023, Deng, now at the University of Chicago, and Hani, of the University of Michigan, posted a preprint(opens a new tab) that teased the desired proof. A forthcoming paper, they wrote, would build off their latest result to investigate “the long-time extension of Lanford’s theorem.” Other mathematicians didn’t know what to make of the announcement. “I didn’t think it was possible,” said Pierre Germain(opens a new tab) of Imperial College London. Deng and Hani didn’t even usually work with particle systems; until that point, they’d mainly been studying systems made up of waves (like rays of light). So mathematicians eagerly awaited the promised proof. When Particles Collide Deng and Hani’s 2023 result involved an analysis of the transition from the microscopic scale to the mesoscopic scale in the context of waves. About a year before the mathematicians posted their paper online, Deng was at a conference, where he met with a graduate student at Princeton University named Xiao Ma. They ended up discussing Deng and Hani’s work, and how they might adapt the methods to particles. Doing so would allow them to extend Lanford’s result — to show that particle recollisions are rare even on longer timescales. It was an idea that Deng and Hani had already been considering. Impressed by Ma’s insights on the topic, Deng invited him to help them turn their intuition into a proof. The trio hoped to focus on a much-studied scenario where mathematicians had already proved the second, meso-to-macro step in Hilbert’s sixth problem. In this scenario, a dilute gas of spherical particles is trapped in a box. If a particle hits one of the box’s walls, it reappears on the opposite wall. But to prove the harder micro-to-meso step for this setting — thereby resolving Hilbert’s sixth problem — Deng, Hani and Ma had to port their wave-based techniques over to particles. So they started in a setting where that task would be a little bit easier. They worked with a gas whose particles are distributed randomly in an infinite amount of space; unlike the particles in the boxed gas, which keep bouncing off each other forever, these particles eventually disperse and stop colliding. “In the whole-space case, there is a shortcut,” Deng said. A woman surfing The three mathematicians first needed to tabulate the different patterns of collisions that might occur in their gas, and how likely each of those patterns was. They could easily rule out scenarios with particularly high rates of recollisions. This left them with a finite, though still massive, number of patterns to analyze — each involving a certain subset of particles colliding, in a certain order. Once they knew exactly what each pattern entailed, they could use that information to estimate its likelihood of occurring. But that often felt like an impossible task, because many of the patterns involved huge numbers of particles and intricate, indirect interactions between them. “The structure of these sets [of colliding particles] gets exceedingly complicated,” Deng said. In principle, the mathematicians would need to keep track of every one of these particles simultaneously to compute the probability estimates they needed. That’s where Deng and Hani’s previous work on waves gave them an important insight. In that result, they’d figured out ways to break up complicated patterns of interacting waves into simpler ones. They’d carefully crafted their technique so that, by working with only a few waves at a time, they could still get a good estimate for the likelihood of the more complicated complete wave pattern. They hoped the same idea would work in the particle setting. But after a collision, particles behave very differently from waves. For instance, particles, unlike waves, bounce off each other, greatly affecting the resulting pattern of collisions and its probability of happening. Deng, Hani and Ma needed to rework the details of their strategy from the beginning. A smiling man Zaher Hani studies solutions to equations that arise in oceanography, plasma physics and quantum mechanics. Courtesy of Zaher Hani First, they tackled the simplest cases, in which each particle collides just a few times over a very short time span, with no recollisions. They then gradually moved on to harder and harder cases — longer amounts of time, with more collisions and recollisions. It was as much an art as a science. “The intuition was developed gradually, starting with some unsuccessful attempts,” Deng said. They had to get a sense for how to slice up large, complicated patterns of particle collisions in a way that would simplify their calculations while keeping their estimates highly accurate. Famous Fluid Equations Are Incomplete mathematical physics Famous Fluid Equations Are Incomplete July 21, 2015 “This is a process that takes months,” Hani said. “We would be stuck constantly.” Nearly every day, they jumped on a Zoom meeting to talk things through. “Much to the dismay of my wife, some of them happened very late at night, or very early in the morning,” Hani said. “I would put my daughter to sleep, and then we would have two or three hours of Zoom meetings.” Finally, by the spring of 2024, the trio was sure they had covered everything. Their proof, which they posted online(opens a new tab) that summer, confirmed that recollisions had to be very, very uncommon. They’d shown, as they’d hoped to, that in their infinite-space setting, Boltzmann’s description of the gas could be derived from Newton’s. The microscopic and mesoscopic scales fell under a single rigorous mathematical framework. “I think it’s outstanding work,” said Alexandru Ionescu(opens a new tab), a mathematician at Princeton who was also Deng and Ma’s doctoral adviser. “These are some of the most significant advances in many, many years.” They were now ready to return to the gas-in-a-box setting, where they could finally solve Hilbert’s sixth problem. The Completed Chain It didn’t take long for them to extend their result from the infinite-space setting to the boxed one. “Eighty percent of the proof is still the same in the whole-space case,” Deng said. In March, they posted a new paper(opens a new tab) that combined their proof with the earlier results connecting the Boltzmann equation to the Navier-Stokes equations. The logical chain was complete: They’d shown that, for a realistic model of a gas, a microscopic description of individual particles does indeed ultimately give rise to a macroscopic description of the gas’s large-scale behavior. The work didn’t just mark the resolution of a major case of Hilbert’s sixth problem. It also provided a rigorous mathematical resolution of an old paradox. At the microscopic scale, where particles act like billiard balls, time is reversible. Newton’s equations predict both where a particle comes from and where it’s going. The future is not fundamentally different from the past. But at the mesoscopic and macroscopic levels, there is no going back in time. “We know very well that, going forward in time, one ages but does not rejuvenate; heat does not spontaneously pass from a cold body to a warm body; a drop of ink in a glass of water spreads, darkening the liquid, but does not spontaneously return to the small, round shape it originally had,” Simonella wrote(opens a new tab). Neither the Boltzmann equation nor the Navier-Stokes equations are time-reversible; if you try to run time backward, the results will be nonsensical. To Boltzmann’s contemporaries, this was perplexing. How could a time-irreversible equation be derived from a time-reversible system? But Boltzmann argued that there was no paradox: Even if each particle can be modeled in a time-reversible way, almost every collision pattern ends up with a gas dispersing. The chance of, say, a gas suddenly contracting is essentially zero. Related: The Trouble With Turbulence New ‘Superdiffusion’ Proof Probes the Mysterious Math of Turbulence New Proofs Probe the Limits of Mathematical Truth Lanford had confirmed this intuition mathematically for his very short time frame. Now Deng, Hani and Ma’s result confirms it for more realistic situations. Going forward, mathematicians — who are still poring over the details of the new proof — want to test whether similar techniques might be useful in other, even more realistic contexts. These might include gases made up of particles of different shapes, or particles that interact in more complicated ways. Meanwhile, Falkovich said, these sorts of rigorous proofs can help physicists understand why a gas behaves a certain way at various scales, and why different models might be more or less effective in different scenarios. “What mathematicians do to physicists,” he said, “is they wake us up.” Editor’s Note: Deng and Hani’s work on the system of waves was funded in part by the Simons Foundation, which also funds this editorially independent magazine.
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Campus Antisemitism Report Card™ ADL’s Campus Antisemitism Report Card provides information about the current state of antisemitism on campus and how universities and colleges are responding. ADL’s Report Card 2.0 assesses 135 schools based on 30 criteria, separated into: ‘Administrative Policies,’ ‘Jewish Life on Campus’ and ‘Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns.' Ratings were assigned under each category that factor into each school’s grade; grades may vary despite identical performance labels due to percentage score differences or qualitative assessments. The impact and enforcement of recently enacted policies may not yet have been fully realized, resulting in higher campus conduct and climate concerns. The Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns category only reflects ‘severe’ and ‘other’ incidents that occurred between April and December 2024. View more information on the methodology. 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Read FAQs and Grading Approach Find a School Enter a zip code, college name, or keyword Filters & Key Letter Grade A Ahead of the Pack B Better than Most C Corrections Needed D Deficient Approach F Failing Criteria Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions 1 Above Expectations 2 Meeting Expectations 3 Below Expectations Jewish Life on Campus 1 Excellent 2 Satisfactory 3 Subpar Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns 1 Low to None 2 Medium 3 High Type of School Public School Private School State Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas See More + Add a School + Add a School + Add a School b Washington, DC American University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell American University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Amherst, MA Amherst College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Amherst College to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Boone, NC Appalachian State University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Appalachian State University to Protect Jewish Students. Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Tempe, AZ Arizona State University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Arizona State University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d New York, NY Barnard College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Barnard College Protect Jewish Students. Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Binghamton, NY Binghamton University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Binghamton University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Boston, MA Boston University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Boston University to Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Brunswick, ME Bowdoin College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Bowdoin College to Protect Jewish Students Last updated July 25, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Waltham, MA Brandeis University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Brandeis University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Providence, RI Brown University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Brown University to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b New York, NY CUNY Baruch College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell CUNY Baruch College to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Brooklyn, NY CUNY Brooklyn College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell CUNY Brooklyn College to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c New York, NY CUNY Hunter College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell CUNY Hunter College to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 13, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Pasadena, CA California Institute of Technology Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell California Institute of Technology to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d San Luis Obispo, CA California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that California Polytechnic State University Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Long Beach, CA California State University Long Beach Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell California State University Long Beach to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Northridge, CA California State University, Northridge Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that California State University Northridge Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Northfield, MN Carleton College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Carleton College Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Pittsburgh, PA Carnegie Mellon University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Carnegie Mellon University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Orange, CA Chapman University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Chapman University Protect Jewish Students. Last updated March 10, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Colorado Springs, CO Colorado College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Colorado College Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d New York, NY Columbia University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Columbia University Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Ithaca, NY Cornell University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Cornell University to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Hanover, NH Dartmouth College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Dartmouth College to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison f Chicago, IL DePaul University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that DePaul University Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Philadelphia, PA Drexel University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Drexel University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Durham, NC Duke University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Duke University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Elon, NC Elon University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Elon University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Atlanta, GA Emory University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Emory University to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison f Olympia, WA Evergreen State College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Evergreen State College Protect Jewish Students. Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Boca Raton, FL Florida Atlantic University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Florida Atlantic University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Miami, FL Florida International University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Florida International University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Tallahassee, FL Florida State University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Florida State University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Fairfax, VA George Mason University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus 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University, New Orleans Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Loyola University New Orleans Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Cambridge, MA Massachusetts Institute of Technology Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Massachusetts Institute of Technology Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b East Lansing, MI Michigan State University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Michigan State University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Allentown, PA Muhlenberg College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Muhlenberg College to Keep Protecting Jewish 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Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that The New School Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Columbus, OH The Ohio State University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell The Ohio State University to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Towson, MD Towson University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Towson University to Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 2, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Medford, MA Tufts University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Tufts University to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b New Orleans, LA Tulane University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Tulane University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Albany, NY University at Albany, SUNY Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University at Albany to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Getzville, NY University at Buffalo Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University at Buffalo to Keep Protecting Jewish Students. Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Tuscaloosa, AL University of Alabama Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Alabama to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Tucson, AZ University of Arizona Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Arizona to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Berkeley, CA University of California, Berkeley Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of California Berkeley to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Davis, CA University of California, Davis Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of California Davis to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Irvine, CA University of California, Irvine Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of California Irvine to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Los Angeles, CA University of California, Los Angeles Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of California Los Angeles Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Riverside, CA University of California, Riverside Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of California Riverside Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c La Jolla, CA University of California, San Diego Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of California San Diego to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Santa Barbara, CA University of California, Santa Barbara Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of California Santa Barbara Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Santa Cruz, CA University of California, Santa Cruz Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of California Santa Cruz Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Orlando, FL University of Central Florida Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Central Florida to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Chicago, IL University of Chicago Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of Chicago Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Boulder, CO University of Colorado, Boulder Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Colorado Boulder to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Storrs, CT University of Connecticut Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Connecticut to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Newark, DE University of Delaware Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Delaware to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Denver, CO University of Denver Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Denver to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Gainesville, FL University of Florida Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Florida to Keep Protecting Jewish Students. Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Athens, GA University of Georgia Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Georgia to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b West Hartford, CT University of Hartford Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Hartford to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Houston, TX University of Houston Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell The University of Houston to Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison f Chicago, IL University of Illinois, Chicago Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of Illinois Chicago Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Champaign, IL University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 7, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Lawrence, KS University of Kansas Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Kansas to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Baltimore, MD University of Maryland, Baltimore County Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of Maryland Baltimore County Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c College Park, MD University of Maryland, College Park Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Maryland College Park to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Amherst, MA University of Massachusetts, Amherst Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of Massachusetts Amherst Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Coral Gables, FL University of Miami Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Miami to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated June 6, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Ann Arbor, MI University of Michigan Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Michigan to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Minneapolis, MN University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell The University of Minnesota to Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Lincoln, NE University of Nebraska, Lincoln Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Nebraska – Lincoln to Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Las Vegas, NV University of Nevada, Las Vegas Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Nevada Las Vegas to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Chapel Hill, NC University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of North Carolina Chapel Hill to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Notre Dame , IN University of Notre Dame Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Notre Dame to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Eugene, OR University of Oregon Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of Oregon Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Philadelphia, PA University of Pennsylvania Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Pennsylvania to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Pittsburgh, PA University of Pittsburgh Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Pittsburgh to Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Columbia, SC University of South Carolina Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of South Carolina to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Tampa, FL University of South Florida Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of South Florida to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Los Angeles, CA University of Southern California Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Southern California to Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 4, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Austin, TX University of Texas, Austin Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Texas, Austin to Keep Protecting Jewish Students. Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Burlington, VT University of Vermont Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Vermont to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Charlottesville, VA University of Virginia Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Virginia to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d Seattle, WA University of Washington Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that University of Washington Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Madison, WI University of Wisconsin–Madison Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell University of Wisconsin Madison to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison a Nashville, TN Vanderbilt University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Vanderbilt University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Poughkeepsie, NY Vassar College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Vassar College to Keep Protecting Jewish Students. Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Blacksburg, VA Virginia Tech Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Virginia Tech to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Winston-Salem, NC Wake Forest University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Wake Forest University to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b St. Louis, MO Washington University in St. Louis Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Washington University in St. Louis to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Detroit, MI Wayne State University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Wayne State University to Protect Jewish Students Last updated April 1, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison b Wellesley, MA Wellesley College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Wellesley College to Keep Protecting Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison c Williamstown, MA Williams College Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Tell Williams College to Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison d New Haven, CT Yale University Publicly Disclosed Administrative Actions Jewish Life on Campus Campus Conduct and Climate Concerns Demand that Yale University Protect Jewish Students Last updated March 3, 2025 View Full Report Add to Comparison
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The end of the deep state is here; Supreme Court seems likely to give Trump more power over agencies President Trump wants the Supreme Court to overturn a 90-year-old precedent limiting his ability to remove leaders of independent agencies. Portrait of Maureen GroppeMaureen Groppe USA TODAY Updated Dec. 8, 2025, 4:56 p.m. ET Deeper Dive BETA Which company sued over Trump's tariffs in a Supreme Court case? When did the Supreme Court hear arguments on Trump's agency firing case? What precedent does Trump seek to overturn regarding agency leadership removal? Which company sued over Trump's tariffs in a Supreme Court case? WASHINGTON – The Supreme Court appears likely to agree with President Donald Trump that he can fire at will the heads of some independent agencies, hearing arguments on Dec. 8 in a case that could redefine how more than a dozen agencies operate and shift power from Congress to the president. The agencies were set up by Congress to be led by politically balanced boards of experts serving staggered, fixed terms. But Trump argues presidential control will make agencies like the Federal Trade Commission, the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the Federal Election Commission more accountable to voters who elect presidents. “The real-world consequences here are human beings exercising enormous governmental authority with a great deal of control over individuals and small and large businesses who ultimately do not answer to the president,” Solicitor General John Sauer told the justices during nearly 2 ½ hours of oral arguments. “That’s a power vacuum.” A lawyer for Rebecca Kelly Slaughter, a FTC commissioner fired by Trump, countered that independent agencies have been part of the nation's governing structure since 1790. “Any abstract theory that would wipe away so much history and precedent should be a nonstarter,” attorney Amit Agarwal argued. Conservative justices sympathetic to Trump's argument President Donald Trump shakes hands with Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol on Jan. 20, 2025. But the court’s conservative supermajority seemed more sympathetic to the Trump administration’s position. Most seemed to agree that the president should be able to remove leaders from at least some agencies and pushed only on how far that could go. Justice Brett Kavanaugh, for example, stressed early that he views the Federal Reserve differently. By contrast, the court’s three liberal justices tried to raise the alarm about the potential consequences of letting presidents control agencies that Congress tried to insulate from political interference. “The result of what you want is that the president is going to have massive, unchecked, uncontrolled power,” Justice Elena Kagan said, “not only to do traditional execution, but to make law through legislative and adjudicative frameworks." Get the Susan Page newsletter in your inbox. Get the latest story from Susan Page right in your inbox. Delivery: Varies Your Email In response, Justice Samuel Alito gave Sauer the chance to argue that the results won’t be disastrous. “In fact, our entire government will move towards accountability,” Sauer agreed. But Agarwal said a president could “just on a whim decide tomorrow that everything the agency has been doing is wrong.” Trump wants Supreme Court to overturn a 90-year-old precedent The headquarters of the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in Washington, DC, November 18, 2024. Trump wants the court to overturn a 1935 decision limiting a president's ability to remove leaders of multimember administrative agencies, a decision the court has been chipping away at since 2010. Under the “unitary executive theory” that conservatives have advanced for years, the Constitution gives presidents complete control over executive functions, which must include the power to remove commission members. In 1935, however, the Supreme Court said the FTC’s duties were “neither political nor executive, but predominantly quasi-judicial and quasi-legislative.” The Department of Justice argues that even if that was a correct interpretation of the FTC in 1935 − which it disputes − it no longer is. Supreme Court could topple yet another campaign finance limit Supreme Court to take on controversial Trump policy on birthright citizenship Supreme Court lets Texas use congressional map favored by Trump Supreme Court not ready to tackle prayers at football games again Supreme Court to review controversial policy at US-Mexico border to limit asylum seekers Trump ratchets up pressure on Supreme Court not to overturn his tariffs Will the Supreme Court treat Trump's tariffs like Biden's policies? Amy Coney Barrett says 'I'm nobody's justice.' That includes Trump. “It was grievously wrong when decided,” Sauer told the justices. He had a receptive audience. Chief Justice John Roberts called that 1935 decision, Humphrey's Executor v. United States, a “dried husk of whatever people used to think it was” because it has “nothing to do with what the FTC looks like today.” But Justice Sonia Sotomayor, the court’s most senior liberal justice, asked Sauer if the court has ever overturned such a long-standing precedent with a major impact on how the government operates. “You’re asking us to destroy the structure of government and to take away from Congress its ability to protect its idea that a government is better structured with some agencies that are independent,” she said. Expert predicts court will overturn Humprey's Executor Kevin King, a partner at Covington & Burling law firm who focuses on appellate and administrative and constitutional law matters, expects the court to overrule − not just further curtail − Humphrey’s Executor. That would mean Trump could remove heads of the FTC and of similar agencies. But King said Kagan’s probing about the potentially far-reaching consequences on other agencies could make a difference when the justices meet privately to discuss the case. “Even if Justice Kagan is not on the winning side of the vote here,” he said, “she nevertheless is influencing the court’s reasoning, and her questions may lead some of her colleagues to take a more cautious and narrow approach here.” Trump declared all federal agencies are under his control The Supreme Court from left, Justices Sonia Sotomayor, Amy Coney Barrett, Clarence Thomas and Neil Gorsuch, Chief Justice John Roberts, and Justices Brett Kavanaugh, Samuel Alito, Ketanji Brown Jackson and Elena Kagan. After taking office, Trump declared that all federal agencies are under his control. “The days of rule by unelected bureaucrats are over,” the president said in a March address to Congress. That same month, Trump fired the two Democratic members of the five-member Federal Trade Commission board, Slaughter and Alvaro Bedoya. The FTC enforces a variety of antitrust and consumer protection laws affecting virtually every area of commerce. He’d already removed Democratic members of two federal labor boards and would later fire the three Democrats on the CPSC. The Supreme Court allowed the firings to proceed while it decides whether Congress had the ability to limit the reasons regulators could be removed to “inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance in office.” Supreme Court will later consider Federal Reserve case Federal Reserve Governor Lisa Cook attends the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City's 2025 Jackson Hole economic symposium, "Labor Markets in Transition: Demographics, Productivity, and Macroeconomic Policy" in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, on Aug. 23, 2025. One question hanging over the case is whether the court will treat the Federal Reserve Board of Governors differently, as the justices suggested they might earlier this year when issuing a temporary ruling about firing labor commission members without cause. And the court did not allow Trump to immediately fire Federal Reserve Governor Lisa Cook, deciding instead to hear arguments in January on his claim that he has just cause to remove her. Slaughter’s and Cook’s cases are among at least four the justices are deciding in the coming months that test Trump’s expansive view of presidential authority. The court is also weighing whether Trump can impose sweeping tariffs on imports even though the Constitution gives Congress the power to raise revenue. And the court will decide if Trump's interpretation of the Constitution means he can deny citizenship to some babies born in the United States. A decision in Trump v. Slaughter is expected by the end of June.
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